What Is Ethical Egoism

Ethical egoism is the view that people ought to pursue their own self-interest, and no one has any obligation to promote anyone else’s interests. It is thus a normative or prescriptive theory: it is concerned with how people ought to behave. In this respect, ethical egoism is quite different from psychological egoism, the theory that all our actions are ultimately self-interested. Psychological egoism is a purely descriptive theory that purports to describe a basic fact about human nature. Arguments In Support of Ethical Egoism Scottish political economist and philosopher Adam Smith (1723 - 1790). Hulton Archive/Getty Images   Everyone pursuing his own self-interest is the best way to promote the general good. This argument was made famous by Bernard Mandeville (1670-1733) in his poem The Fable of the Bees and by Adam Smith (1723-1790) in his pioneering work on economics, The Wealth of Nations.   In a famous passage, Smith wrote that when individuals single-mindedly pursue â€Å"the gratification of their own vain and insatiable desires† they unintentionally, as if â€Å"led by an invisible hand,† benefit society as a whole. This happy result comes about because people generally are the best judges of what is in their own interest, and they are much more motivated to work hard to benefit themselves than to achieve any other goal. An obvious objection to this argument, though, is that ​it doesn’t really support ethical egoism. It assumes that what really matters is the well-being of society as a whole, the general good. It then claims that the best way to achieve this end is for everyone to look out for themselves. But if it could be proved that this attitude did not, in fact, promote the general good, then those who advance this argument would presumably stop advocating egoism. Prisoners Dilemma Another objection is that what the argument states is not always true. Consider the prisoner’s dilemma, for instance. This is a hypothetical situation described in game theory.  You and a comrade, (call him X) are being held in prison. You are both asked to confess. The terms of the deal you are offered are as follows: If you confess and X doesn’t, you get six months and he gets 10 years.If X confesses and you don’t, he gets six months and you get 10 years.If you both confess, you both get five years.  If neither of you confesses, you both get two years. Regardless of what X does, the best thing for you to do is confess. Because if he doesn’t confess, you’ll get a light sentence; and if he does confess, you’ll at least avoid getting extra prison time. But the same reasoning holds for X as well. According to ethical egoism, you should both pursue your rational self-interest. But then the outcome is not the best one possible. You both get five years, whereas if both of you had put your self-interest on hold, you’d each only get two years. The point of this is simple. It isn’t always in your best interest to pursue your own self-interest without concern for others. Sacrificing your own interests for the good of others denies the fundamental value of your own life to yourself. Ayn Rands Objectivism This seems to be the sort of argument put forward by Ayn Rand, the leading exponent of â€Å"objectivism† and the author of The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged.  Her complaint is that the Judeo-Christian moral tradition, which includes—or has fed into—modern liberalism and socialism, pushes an ethic of altruism.  Altruism means putting the interests of others before your own.   This is something people are routinely praised for doing, encouraged to do, and in some circumstances even required to do, such as when you pay taxes to support the needy.  According to Rand, no one has any right to expect or demand that I make any sacrifices for the sake of anyone other than myself. Ayn Rand, 1957. New York Times Co./Getty Images A problem with this argument is that it seems to assume that there is generally a conflict between pursuing your own interests and helping others.  In fact, though, most people would say that these two goals are not necessarily opposed at all.  Much of the time they complement one another.   For instance, one student may help a housemate with her homework, which is altruistic.  But that student also has an interest in enjoying good relations with her housemates. She may not help everyone in all circumstances, but she will help if the sacrifice involved is not too great.  Most people behave like this, seeking a balance between egoism and altruism. More Objections to Ethical Egoism Ethical egoism is not a very popular moral philosophy. This is because it goes against certain basic assumptions that most people have regarding what ethics involves. Two objections seem especially powerful. Ethical egoism has no solutions to offer when a problem arises involving conflicts of interest. Many ethical issues are of this sort. For example, a company wants to empty waste into a river; the people living downstream object. Ethical egoism advises that both parties actively pursue what they want. It doesn’t suggest any sort of resolution or commonsense compromise. Ethical egoism goes against the principle of impartiality. A basic assumption made by many moral philosophers—and many other people, for that matter—is that we should not discriminate against people on arbitrary grounds such as race, religion, sex, sexual orientation or ethnic origin. But ethical egoism holds that we should not even try to be impartial. Rather, we should distinguish between ourselves and everyone else, and give ourselves preferential treatment. To many, this seems to contradict the very essence of morality. The golden rule—versions of which appear in Confucianism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—says we should treat others as we would like to be treated. One of the greatest moral philosophers of modern times, ​Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), argued that the fundamental principle of morality (the â€Å"categorical imperative,† in his jargon) is that we should not make exceptions of ourselves. According to Kant, we shouldn’t  perform an action if we cannot honestly wish that everyone would behave in a similar way in the same circumstances.

Child Labor Is An Practical Answer For Poor Families

Cocoa is made from the cacao bean, which that only grows in tropical environments. The only places where you can grow these beans are along the Ivory Coast (the West African countries along the coastline) and Central America. The victims of child labor are often 12 - 16 years old, but reporters have found children as young as 5 years of age at these farms. Children do not get to see their parents and families for years, or ever. Most farmers have never eaten chocolate in their entire lives. Although the cocoa farm owners make tons of money, they still pay their workers under $2 a day. This is way below the poverty line. As a result, child labor becomes the practical answer for poor families who work at these farms. There are two main ways how parents willingly make their children work at these farms. One is that they need more workers so they make their children help them. Another way is that the owners of these farms tell the parents to sell their kid to them. They say that it is easy work and they get food and an education. They then make them work from 4 A.M. to 4 P.M. This is a 12 hour work day for children. They usually are not able to break the poverty system because they are not educated. They sleep on wooden planks and are fed mashed corn with bread in limited amounts. The children’s growth will halt because of lack of sleep and malnutrition. Pesticides are used on the plants which with inhaling and touching can cause serious, sometimes permanent sideShow MoreRelatedIs Our Government Family Friendly? The United States Welfare System1654 Words   |  7 Pagesneed. It was created for the unemployed and underemployed to use in helping out with the needs of their families. This original program lasted until 1996, when the federal government stopped the federal aid to all poor and cut welfare to poor women with children. 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Non-reactive techniques, observation, and experimentation Free Essays

In research, the question, hypothesis, research design, data collection strategy, and data analysis procedures are rooted in previous literatures and identified before the project begins. Any changes in the proposed design while carrying out the research would be seen as weakening the validity of the research finding and, well, just bad research practice. An explanatory, also called classical experimental, design is seen as the most robust, since it follows procedures that meet the criteria for proving causality. We will write a custom essay sample on Non-reactive techniques, observation, and experimentation or any similar topic only for you Order Now It identifies independent and dependent variable, required random assignment of research subjects to experimental and a control group so that both groups are the same, describes procedures for manipulation of the dependent variable(s), and requires development of pretest and posttest instruments and time frames. If this design is implemented then threats to internal validity (proving causality) are removed. Descriptive designs address correlational relationships between independent and dependent variables, usually through large-scale surveys. Samples are preferably random (representative of the population being studied); however, these samples are not manipulated into control and experimental groups but are surveyed in their own settings using valid and reliable data collection instruments developed in advance of data collection. Such designs do not address threats to internal validity, but they are considered to have stronger external validity (generalizability of findings from the sample to the population of interest) than the explanatory design (Morris, 2006). The â€Å"Classical† Experimental Design All experimental designs are variations on the basic classical experimental design, which consists of two groups, an experimental and a control group, and two variables, an independent and a dependent variable. Units to be analyzed (e.g., subjects) are randomly assigned to each of the experimental and control groups. Units in the experimental group receive the independent variable (the treatment condition) that the investigator has manipulated. Contributors in the control group do not obtain the independent variable handling. Pretest and Posttest measures are taken on the independent variable(s), and the control group participants are measures at the same time as the experimental group, although no planned change or manipulation has taken place with regard to the independent variable in the control group. Researchers often use this design when they are interested in assessing change from the pretest to the posttest, as a result of a treatment or intervention. This design is also known as â€Å"pretest-posttest† or â€Å"before-after† design, to differentiate it from a posttest-only design in which one group receives a treatment, whereas the other group receives no treatment and serves as a control. The key difference in the posttest-only design is that neither group is pretested, nor only at the end of the study are both groups measured on the dependent variable. Some researchers favor this latter design over the classic two-group pre- and posttest approach because they are concerned that the pretest measures will sensitize participants or that a learning effect might take place that influences individuals’ performance on the posttest (Babbie, 2005). Ascertaining Causality between Variables Researchers challenge to establish cause-and-effect associations linking independent and dependent variables by experimental studies. An experiment characterizes a set of processes to decide the fundamental nature of the causal association linking independent and dependent variables. â€Å"Systematically changing the value of the independent variable and measuring the effect on the dependent variable characterizes experimentation†(Maxfield Babbie, 2004). Sometimes, the experiment appraises the outcome of arrangements of independent variable comparative to one or more dependent variables. Not considering the quantity of variables considered, and experiment’s crucial purpose challenges to methodically segregate the result of at least one independent variable connected to at least one dependent variable. Simply when this occurs can one choose which variable(s) truly clarifies the happening (Morris, 2006). To conclude causality, science necessitates that an alteration in the X-variable (independent, influenced variable) go before an adjustment in the Y-variable (dependent, variable predictable for change), with suitable deliberation for scheming other variables that may in reality root the relationship. Perceptive in causal aspects in associations among variables improves one’s perception about experimental data. Controlling all potential factors that influence those effects of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s) requires considerable effort, knowledge about the main factors, and creativity (Lewis-Beck, Bryman, Liao, 2004). Conclusion In other words, the fact that a dependent variable and an independent variable are strongly associated cannot always be extended to a logical conclusion that it is the value of the independent variable that is causing the value of the dependent variable to be whatever it is. To achieve causality between variables, one must conduct an experimental study about these variables. Oftentimes, investigational outcome are not constant as they come out. Even though field studies supply purpose insight about probable causes for experiential phenomena, the need of full power innate in such study confines capability to deduce causality. Because neither dynamic treatment of the independent variable by the experimenter nor manage over probable overriding factors happen, no assurance survives that any experiential disparity in the dependent variable essentially resulted from difference in the independent variable (Maxfield Babbie, 2004). References: Babbie, E. R. (2005). The Basics of Social Research. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. Lewis-Beck, M. S., Bryman, A., Liao, T. F. (2004). The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods. New York: SAGE. Maxfield, M. G., Babbie, E. R. (2004). Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. Morris, T. (2006). Social Work Research Methods: Four Alternative Paradigms. New York: SAGE. How to cite Non-reactive techniques, observation, and experimentation, Essays

Performance Management System

Based on your research into the pre-selected company, outline, analyse and evaluate the performance management system that the company is using to achieve its key strategic goals. You will need to research current theories and practices from literature as they relate to performance management systems. This research should be used to provide evidence that supports your evaluation and recommendations. Your report should: Provide a situational analysis of the company under investigation. Analyse and evaluate the current performance management system (PMS). Discuss the fit between the PMS and the company strategy. Make recommendations on how the PMS could be improved. The report requires: The use of information from the pre-selected organisation. The use of analytic tools to evaluate the PMS. A range of references from literature that should demonstrate breadth and depth of your research. The use of the wider literature to provide evidence for your evaluation and recommendations. The display of critical evaluation and diagnostic skills in the choice of the data included. The display of critical evaluation in the choice of the information sources used. Appropriate and accurate use of the Harvard Referencing System. Text books: at least 5 text books. At least 4 academic journal articles (found using EBSCO, Emerald, ABI/Proquest, Science Direct, Informit, PyscInfo etc.). 2 other sources of your choice: Blog, newspaper, magazine or other Internet source. No more than 1 reference may be general Internet based sources. Wikipedia is not to be used and does not count as an academic reference. Introduction Performance Management System is a solution that provides the meeting place for a large number of people and the management practiced by them, which also includes training and development of new individuals in the system and to the system itself. This is a sort of system which provides a platform for the development of an individual or the entire team with better and improved performance evaluation of the group or an organization, which results in an improved efficiency (Murphy Arvey, 1998). Performance Management Performance management is about bringing management teams and people together to form an environment where continuous growth is the only goal to be achieved, and is practised by all the individuals and teams of this environment. It is a long term evolution process, aimed at continuous improvement of the company or organization, by closely monitoring the performance of the individuals and the teams working day and night to build the company big, and then channelizing their efforts and energies in such a way that they become much more effective and influential to the organization. This is done with help of each team member (DeNisi Kluger, 2000). This is not an individual task or an overnight task, it requires both time and patience to witness the complete effect. There are four major parts of the PMS, they are as described below: Performance Review Cycle (PRC) It is an ongoing process, consisting of a series of meetings within the organization between the managers and the employees, related to the work done, role played, target achieved, problems faced and betterment solutions. Performance Improvement Plan (PIP) It is a process with strict time boundaries; it requires the improvement to be done, after it is identified where it is required. It is not to be confused with disciplinary process, as it has nothing to do with discipline. HR and Discipline Specific Professional Practices within the organisation Merging the discipline committee with the companys HRs the performance improvement is ensured within the organization by a number of ways. Relevant HSE performance measures (Hillgren Cheatham, 2000). There are many type of Performance Management Systems being used by different companies, some of them use manual ways for performance evaluation like making record files and then employing another skilled manpower to assess the performance of others on some set guidelines decided by them or designed by them from some outer agency, thus creating too much complexity in the process (Martin, Bartol Kehoe, 2000). Or, another way popular these days for the performance evaluation purpose, is the use of specialised system for the same task. These are developed according to some specific needs or can be customized according to individual business needs. ReviewSNAP, Taleo Perform, and Success Factors are few examples of these type of systems. Lets take the example of ReviewSNAP and look into it what it actually is. ReviewSNAP It is a system for mostly small and medium sized organizations with not such a huge data to handle. It can be customised according to specific business needs with features like goal setting and notes creation. Features like maintenance of the job description, employees self-assessment series, review due reminder, reporting and statistical dashboard. The dashboard, what is the current performance index of the organization and the managements role to improve it. ReviewSNAP is a simple application as it is a web-based system and requires no software maintenance. ReviewSNAP is a 4 in 1 professional system. It makes performance based appraisal easy to be implemented as the performance matrix is set and every individual is also aware of his performance, so this makes an efficient and transparent system (Weatherly, 2004). It provides better insight to an individual about his performance and improvements. Rewards are now easy to be implemented based on performance as the target is already set, if individuals meet the target they get the reward or else its a fare system. New content can be added to the system anytime, which can make it an ever growing system that never goes out of date even if the company policies change completely. Figure 1 Figure 2: (Weister, 2015) ReviewSNAP is fully automated performance management system very user-friendly, reliable and affordable software, used as a service solution to help companies align goals for greater results (Beatty, Schneier Shaw, 1995). It also enhances the communication as well as coach the individuals, increase employee engagement, and save time and money through improved efficiency. Case Study Union Bank Trust Company is a private bank situated in Nebraska that offers a variety of services like banking, lending, and investment and trust services. There are many branches of this bank which offer full service and loan production offices in Nebraska as well as Kansas. Along with Lincoln and Omaha, there are branches located in nineteen communities of Nebraska and the area near Kansas City Metro (Hillgren Cheatham, 2000). Throughout the world, it is ranked third largest private bank in Nebraska with bank assets of $2.6 billion and trust assets of $11.8 billion as of June 30, 2013. In 2011, UBT decided to curtail the ineffective and inefficient performance management practices which have become standard worldwide and started looking for some new and more efficient system to evaluate the performance of its employees. Chad Theis, first vice president of HR at UBT was also very unimpressed with the current practice of once in a year meeting of the managers with their employees, where they evaluate their annual performance and based on that provide them with a target to achieve in the next 1 year. Like other big companies, UBT also provided its managers with free decision making and evaluation techniques, but this caused non uniformity, as different managers had different way to evaluate the employees (Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology, 2003). Moreover, lot of times, the performance evaluation part was almost dropped down by simply being forgotten by bigger issues to handle. Even the managers of the company were not happy with this performance evaluation system as they themselves faced the problem in evaluating the employees in the annual cycle meeting and due to which the goals they set for them were hardly achieved by a very few of them. Also, they noticed that at the time of evaluation, the employees are also not very active in their part of participation, as they were also aware that it is more of a show-off than a real practice. This is when the managers at UBT decided to move out of its old methodology and observe something new. In this quest, they came up with the idea of 4 by 4 process. Both the managers as well as the employees felt the need of often meeting with each other to better understand each other. So, in this way, they conducted cycle meeting quarterly, where the management had an interaction with their sub-ordinates and discussion were carried out on their performance in this 3 month period and based on that rewards and goals were give n (Armstrong Baron, 2000). Now, after coming over with a new idea to understand the problem, they now needed an evaluation system which can evaluate the large dataset on their part. This is where they came across ReviewSNAP. According to Theis, the service first seemed a bit expensive on its part, but when he investigated deeper about the capabilities of the systems, he found that there are many services which can be used for the evaluation purpose and based on the number of services offered and the ease by which the system can be operated. The price was not enough to call the deal off, hence, the company decided to go with ReviewSNAP as the official Performance Management System for them. The biggest catchy factor for the company was the part of the system where they asked, what they actually needed in the system. It was totally customized in accordance to them after long discussion, where they discussed with the software developers to attain their needs. In fact, the company also helped them in getting what they required, as a service from them (Smither). From the time ReviewSNAP system got installed as an official PMS, it is observed that there is a marked growth in their performance, because of the reason that each employee knows their present as well as past performance. Regular cycle meetings are held so that employees can directly meet their superiors and discuss about their improvement. Now, the managers can also monitor the growth very easily and dont have to take much stress on this task of evaluation. The employees are also satisfied as the system working now is totally transparent and they themselves know where they stand in the performance matrix, what is their goal to be achieved, what is to be done to achieve it and what will be the reward for achieving the goal. The new system brought zeal in every employee to self-excel and perform well to achieve the goal and get the reward (Lee, Havigurst Rassel, 2004). Conclusion Examples like these make it clear that the performance management task has not lost its value, in fact it is regaining its true value of total manpower management and bringing out the best in everyone in order to benefit the organization more. Further changes can go on in the system in terms of more features to be included like business forecast. References Arvey, R. D., Murphy, K. R. (1998). Performance evaluation in work settings. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 141-168. Beatty, R. W., Baird, L. S., Schneier, E. C., Shaw (1995). Performance, Measurement, Management, and Appraisal Sourcebook. Amherst, MA: Human Resource Development Press. Cardy, R. L. (2003). Performance management: Concepts, skills, and exercises. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, Inc. DeNisi, A. S., Kluger, A. N. (2000). Feedback effectiveness: Can 360-degree appraisals be improved? Academy of Management Executive, 14(1), 129-139. Greguras, G. J., Robie, C., Schleicher, D. J., Goff, M. (2003). A field study of the effects of rating purpose on the quality of multisource ratings. Personnel Psychology, 56, 1-21. Hillgren, J. S., Cheatham, D. W. (2000). Understanding performance measures: An approach to linking rewards to the achievement of organizational objectives. Scottsdale, AZ: WorldatWork. Lee, J., Havigurst, L. C., Rassel, G. (2004). Factors related to court references to performance appraisal fairness and validity. Public Personnel Management, 33 (1), 61-78. Martin, D. C., Bartol, K.M., Kehoe, P. E. (2000). The legal ramifications of performance appraisal: The growing significance. Public Personnel Management, 29(3), 379-406. Smither, J. W. (Ed.). Performance Appraisal: State of the Art in Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. (2003). Principles for the validation and use of personnel selection procedures: Fourth edition. Bowling Green, OH: Author. Weatherly, L. A. (2004). Performance management: Getting it right from the start. SHRM Research Quarterly, 2, 1-10. Armstrong, M., Baron, A. (2000). Performance management.Human resource management, 69-84. Figure 1: Available at: https://lh4.ggpht.com/5rAYcEbw7QWOUYvid9IX9BomHIB1xm-E9-tUEF9w3cyBOKWrkmE3FGhZcI9kak1InBo9bQ=s161 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2015]. Figure 2: Weister, N. (2015). Employee Performance Reviews. Bridging the gap.. [image] Available at: https://www.reviewsnap.com/performance-management-infographic.cfm [Accessed 10 Jan. 2015].